Do honey badgers and greater honeyguide birds cooperate? (Journal of Zoology, 2023

Authors: van der Wal, J.E.M., Afan, A.I., Anyawire, M., Begg, C.M., Begg, K.S., Dabo, G.A., Gedi, I.I., Harris, J.A., Isack, H.A., Ibrahim^, J.I., Jamie, G.A., Kamboe^, W.-B.W., Kilawi, A.O., Kingston, A., Laltaika, E.A., Lloyd-Jones, D.J., M’manga, G.M., Muhammad, N.Z., Ngcamphalala, C.A., Nhlabatsi, S.O., Oleleteyo, T.T., Sanda, M., Tsamkxao, L., Wood, B.M., Spottiswoode, C.N., Cram, D.L.

Abstract: Safeguarding human-wildlife mutualism

In parts of Africa, greater honeyguides (Indicator indicator) lead people to bees’ nests, after which people harvest the honey, and make beeswax and larvae accessible to the honeyguide. In scientific and popular literature, a similar cooperative relationship is frequently described between honeyguides and honey badgers (Mellivora capensis), yet the evidence that this occurs is unclear. Such a partnership may have implications for the origins of our own species’ cooperation with honeyguides, and for the ecology and conservation of both honey badgers and honeyguides. Here, we review the evidence that honey badgers and honeyguides cooperate to access bees’ nests, drawing from the published literature, from our own observations whilst studying both species, and by analysing 394 interviews with honey-hunters in 11 communities across nine African countries. We find that the scientific evidence relies on incomplete and second-hand accounts and does not convincingly indicate that the two species cooperate. The majority of honey-hunters we interviewed were similarly doubtful about the interaction, but many interviewees in the Hadzabe, Maasai, and mixed culture communities in Tanzania reported having seen honey badgers and honeyguides interact, and think that they do cooperate. This complementary approach suggests that the most likely scenario is that the interaction does occur but is highly localised or extremely difficult to observe, or both. With substantial uncertainty remaining, we outline empirical studies that would clarify whether and where honeyguides and honey badgers cooperate, and emphasise the value of integrating scientific and cultural knowledge in ecology.

Ikisiri: Je, nyegere na nedge segu hushirikiana kupata viota vya nyuki? Ushahidi wa kiekolojia na ripoti za wawinda asali

Katika sehemu mbalimbali za Afrika, ndege aitwaye segu au kwa jina la kisayansi huitwa (Indicator indicator) huwaongoza watu kwenye viota vya nyuki, na baada ya watu kuvuna asali, nta na watoto wa nyuki mara kwa mara hupatiwa ndege huyu. Katika machapisho ya kisanyansi na machapisho maarufu, ushirikiano kati ya ndege segu na nyegere kwa jina la kisayandi (Mellivora capensis) inasadikiwa mara kwa mara, lakini ushahidi kamili wa ushirikiano kati ya wanyama hawa ni ngumu kuthibitisha. Ushirikiano kama huu unaweza kufafanua ufahamu wa kina na kuongeza ujuzi wetu kuhusu mwanzo wa ushirikiano kati ya sisi binadamu na segu na kwa ekolojia na uhifadhi wa nyegere pamoja na segu. Katika makala hii, tunakagua ushahidi mbalimbali kwamba nyegere na segu wanauhusiano. Tunafanya mapitio katika fasihi za kisayansi ziliyochapishwa, kutokana na uchunguzi wetu wakati tunatafiti viumbe husika, na kwa kuchambua mahojiano 394 kwa wawinda asali katika jamii 11 kwenye nchi tisa za Afrika. Tumegundua kwamba ushahidi wa kisayansi uliochapishwa unategemea zaidi kwenye taarifa zilizokamilika na zisizotoka kwenye ushahidi wa moja kwa moja, na hautoi ushahidi wa kuaminisha kwamba wanyama hawa wa nashirikiana. Wawinda asali wengi ambao tuliwahoji, walikua na shaka kama nyegere na segu wanauhusiano. Lakini wengi katika jamii za waHadzabe, waMaasai, na jamii za kuchanganyikana Tanzania walisema wameona nyegere na segu wakisirikiana, na wanaamini kwamba ushirikiano huo upo. Matokeo yanapendekeza kuwa uwezekano mkubwa ni kwamba ushirikiano kati ya nyegere na segu hutokea, lakini inapatikana sehemu chache tu na ni vigumu sana kuutazama, au vyote viwili. Bado hakuna uhakika kwamba nyegere na segu wanauhusiano.Tunapendekeza utafiti wa kisayansi zaidi kugundua wapi segu na nyegere wanashirikiana zaidi. Tunasisitiza umuhimu wa kuunganisha ujuzi wa kitamaduni na kisayansi katika ekolojia.

Safeguarding human-wildlife cooperation (Conservation Letters 2022)

Authors: van der Wal, J.E.M., Spottiswoode, C.N., Uomini, N.T., Cantor, M., Daura-Jorge, F.G., Afan, A.I., Attwood, M.C., Amphaeris, J., Balasani, F., Begg, C.M., Blair, C.J., Bronstein, J.L., Buanachique, I.O., Cuthill, R.R.T., Das, J., Deb, A., Dixit, T., Dlamini, G.S., Dounias, E., Gedi, I.I., Gruber, M., Hoffman, L.S., Holzlehner, T., Isack, H.A., Laltaika, A.E., Lloyd-Jones, D.J., Lund, J., Machado, A.M.S., Mahadevan, L., Moreno, I.B., Nwaogu, C.J., Pereira, V.L., Pierotti, R., Rucunua, S.A., dos Santos, W.F., Serpa, N., Smith, B.D., Tolkova, I., Tun, T., Valle-Pereira, J.V.S., Wood, B.M., Wrangham, R.W. & Cram, D.L.

Abstract: Safeguarding human-wildlife mutualism

Human-wildlife cooperation occurs when humans and free-living wild animals actively coordinate their behaviour to achieve a mutually beneficial outcome. These interactionsprovide important benefits to both the human and wildlife communities involved, have wider impacts on the local ecosystem, and represent a unique intersection of human and animal cultures. The remaining active forms are human-honeyguide and human-dolphin cooperation, but these are at risk of joining several inactive forms (including human-wolf and human-orca cooperation). Human-wildlife cooperation faces a unique set of conservation challenges, as it requires multiple components—a motivated human and wildlife partner, a suitable environment, and compatible inter-species knowledge—which face threats from ecological and cultural changes. To safeguard human-wildlife cooperation, we recommend: (i) establishing ethically sound conservation strategies together with the participating human communities; (ii) conserving opportunities for human and wildlifeparticipation; (iii) protecting suitable environments; (iv) facilitating cultural transmission of traditional knowledge; (v) accessibly archiving Indigenous and scientific knowledge; and (vi) conducting long-term empirical studies to better understand these interactions and identify threats. Tailored safeguarding plans are therefore necessary to protect these diverse and irreplaceable interactions. Broadly, our review highlights that efforts to conserve biological and cultural diversity should carefully consider interactions between human and animal cultures.

Resumo: Salvaguardar a Cooperação Humano-Fauna Selvagem

A cooperação entre humanos e animais selvagens ocorre quando ambos coordenam ativamente seus comportamentos para alcançar um resultado mutuamente benéfico. Essas interações oferece benefícios importantes para ambas as partes, têm impactos amplos no ecossistema local e representam uma interseção única entre culturas humanas e não-humanas. A cooperação entre catadores-de-mel e a ave indicador-grande, e a cooperação entre pescadores artesanais e diferentes espécies de botos, são as formas ativas remanescentes de cooperação entre humanos e animais selvagens, mas correm risco de se tornarem inativas, como as cooperações entre caçadores e lobos, baleeiros e orcas e tantas outras documentadas no passado. Tais cooperações ativas, no entanto, enfrentam desafios particulares de conservação, pois requerem múltiplos componentes – a motivação tanto do parceiro humano quanto do animal, a adequação do ambiente e a compatibilidade do conhecimento interespecífico – os quais encontram-se atualmente ameaçados por mudanças ecológicas e culturais. Para salvaguardar a cooperação entre humanos e animais selvagens para as gerações futuras, recomendamos: (i) estabelecer, em conjunto com as comunidades humanas participantes, estratégias de conservação éticas; (ii) conservar as oportunidades de participação dos humanos e animais selvagens no comportamento cooperativo; (iii) proteger os ambientes adequados para a cooperação; (iv) facilitar a transmissão cultural do conhecimento tradicional necessário para esta interação; (v) arquivar os conhecimentos tradicional e científico de forma acessível; e (vi) realizar estudos empíricos de longo prazo para melhor compreender o funcionamento destas interações únicas e identificar potenciais ameaças. Planos de conservação específicos baseados no conhecimento cultural local são, portanto, necessários para proteger essas interações diversas e insubstituíveis. Em geral, a nossa revisão destaca que os esforços para conservar a diversidade biológica e cultural devem considerar cuidadosamente as interações entre as culturas humanas e não-humanas.

Ikisiri: Ulinzi wa ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori

Ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori hutokea wakati binadamu na wanyamapori wanapounganisha kikamilifu tabia zao na kutekeleza manufaa kwa pande zote. Ushirikiano huu hutoa manufaa muhimu kwa jamii za binadamu na wanyamapori zinazohusika, pia una athari kubwa zaidi kwenye mfumo ikolojia na unawakilisha muunganiko wa kipekee wa tamaduni za binadamu na wanyama. Mifano iliyosalia ya ushirikiano wa binadamu na wanyamapori ni ushirikiano wa binadanu na kiongozi ya asali (ndege anayeongoza warinaji kuelekea asali ilipo) na binadamu na pomboo lakini kuna hatari kwamba ushirikiano huu unapotea kama ilivyo kwa ushirikiano wa binadamu na mbwa mwitu na binadamu na nyangumi (“orca”). Ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori unakabiliwa na changamoto za kipekee za uhifadhi, kwa kuwa unahitaji vipengele vingi kama ushirika wenye motisha kwa binadamu na wanyamapori, mazingira yanayofaa na maarifa yanayoendana na spishi mbalimbali; vipengele hivi vinakabiliwa na vikwazo vya mabadiliko ya kiikolojia na kitamaduni. Ili kulinda ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori, tunapendekeza: (i) kuanzisha mikakati madhubuti ya kimaadili ya uhifadhi kwa kushirikiana na jamii za binadamu zinazoshiriki; (ii) fursa za uhifadhi kwa ajili ya ushirikiano wa binadamu na wanyamapori; (iii) kulinda mazingira yanayofaa; (iv) kuwezesha usambazaji wa maarifa ya kiutamaduni; (v) kuhifadhi kwa urahisi maarifa ya kiasili na kisayansi; na (vi) kufanya tafiti za kitaalamu za muda mrefu ili kuelewa zaidi mwingiliano huu na kutambua vikwazo. Mipango ya ulinzi ni muhimu ili kulinda uhusiano  huu wa aina tofauti na usiowezekana kutengezwa tena. Kwa ujumla, utafiti wetu unasisitiza kwamba juhudi za kuhifadhi uanuwai wa kibaolojia na kiutamaduni zinapaswa kuzingatia kwa makini mwingiliano kati ya tamaduni za binadamu na wanyama.

The ecology and evolution of human-wildlife cooperation (People and Nature 2022)

Authors: Cram, D.L., van der Wal, J.E.M., Uomini, N.T., Cantor, M., Afan, A.I., Attwood, M.C., Amphaeris, J., Balasani, F., Blair, C.J., Bronstein, J.L., Buanachique, I.O., Cuthill, R.R.T., Das, J., Daura-Jorge, F.G., Deb, A., Dixit, T., Dlamini, G.S., Dounias, E., Gedi, I.I., Gruber, M., Hoffman, L.S., Holzlehner, T., Isack, H.A., Laltaika, A.E., Lloyd-Jones, D.J., Lund, J., Machado, A.M.S., Mahadevan, L., Moreno, I.B., Nwaogu, C.J., Pereira, V.L., Pierotti, R., Rucunua, S.A., dos Santos, W.F., Serpa, N., Smith, B.D., Sridhar, H., Tolkova, I., Tun, T., Valle-Pereira, J.V.S., Wood, B.M., Wrangham, R.W. & Spottiswoode, C.N.

Abstract: The Ecology and Evolution of Human-Wildlife Cooperation

1. Human-wildlife cooperation is a type of mutualism in which a human and a wild, free-living, animal actively coordinate their behaviour to achieve a common beneficial outcome.
2. While other cooperative human-animal interactions involving captive coercion or artificial selection (including domestication) have received extensive attention, we lack integrated insights into the ecology and evolution of human-wildlife cooperative interactions.
3. Here, we review and synthesise the function, mechanism, development, and evolution of human-wildlife cooperation.
4. Active cases involve people cooperating with greater honeyguide birds and with two dolphin species, while historical cases involve wolves and orcas.
5. In all cases, a food source located by the animal is made available to both species by a tool-using human, coordinated with cues or signals.
6. The mechanisms mediating the animal behaviours involved are unclear, but they may resemble those underlying intraspecific cooperation and reduced neophobia.
7. The skills required appear to develop at least partially by social learning in both humans and the animal partners. As a result, distinct behavioural variants have emerged in each type of human-wildlife cooperative interaction in both species, and human-wildlife cooperation is embedded within local human cultures.
8. We propose multiple potential origins for these unique cooperative interactions, and highlight how shifts to other interaction types threaten their persistence.
9. Finally, we identify key questions for future research. We advocate an approach that integrates ecological, evolutionary, and anthropological perspectives to advance our understanding of human-wildlife cooperation. In doing so, we will gain new insights into the diversity of our ancestral, current, and future interactions with the natural world.

Resumo: Ecologia e evolução da cooperação entre humanos e animais selvagens

1. A cooperação entre humanos e animais selvagens é um tipo de mutualismo no qual um humano e um animal, de vida livre, coordenam ativamente seu comportamento para alcançar um benefício comum. 
2. Embora outras interações cooperativas entre humanos e animais envolvendo coerção em cativeiro ou seleção artificial (incluindo domesticação) tenham recebido muita atenção, um entendimento integrado sobre a ecologia e a evolução das interações cooperativas entre humanos e animais selvagens se faz necessário. 
3. Neste estudo revisamos e sintetizamos a função, os mecanismos, o desenvolvimento e a evolução da cooperação entre humanos e animais selvagens. 
4. Casos atualmente ativos envolvem humanos que cooperam com aves Guia-de-mel e com duas espécies de golfinhos, enquanto casos históricos envolvem humanos, lobos e orcas.
5. Em todos os casos, uma fonte de alimento localizada pelo animal é disponibilizada para ambas as espécies por um humano que usa uma ferramenta e coordena seu comportamento seguindo pistas ou sinais do parceiro animal. 
6. Os mecanismos envolvidos na mediação dos comportamentos animais não são claros, mas podem se assemelhar aos mecanismos subjacentes à cooperação intraespecífica e à redução de neofobia. 
7. As habilidades necessárias parecem desenvolver-se, pelo menos parcialmente, pelo aprendizado social, tanto nos humanos, quanto nos parceiros animais. Como resultado, surgiram variantes comportamentais distintas, em cada tipo de interação cooperativa entre humanos e animais selvagens, em ambas as espécies envolvidas, e essas interações foram incorporadas nas culturas humanas locais. 
8. Propomos múltiplas origens potenciais para essas interações cooperativas únicas e destacamos como as mudanças para outros tipos de interação ameaçam sua persistência. 
9. Por fim, identificamos questões-chave para pesquisas futuras, como abordagens que integrem perspectivas ecológicas, evolutivas e antropológicas para avançar na compreensão dessas cooperações. Ao fazer isso, esperamos novos entendimentos sobre a diversidade de nossas interações ancestrais, atuais e futuras com o mundo natural.

Ikisiri: Ikolojia na mageuzi ya ushirikiano kati ya binadamu-wanyamapori

1. Ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori hutokea wakati binadamu na wanyamapori wanapounganisha kikamilifu tabia zao na kutekeleza manufaa kwa pande zote. 
2. Ingawa mifano mingine ya ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori inahusisha ukuzaji au uteuzi bandia, tunakosa maarifa jumuishi katika ikolojia na mageuzi kuhusu mwingiliano wa binadamu na wanyamapori. 
3. Hapa, tunapitia na kuunganisha tabia, utaratibu, maendeleo na mageuzi ya ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori. 
4. Kesi zinazoendelea zinahusisha watu wanaoshirikiana na ndege ndege anayeongoza warinaji kuelekea asali ilipo (“kiongozi wa asali”) na aina mbili za pomboo, wakati kesi za kihistoria zinahusisha mbwa mwitu na nyangumi. 
5. Katika mifano yote, mnyama anatafuta sehemu yenye chakula iko, na baada yakuona anatumia ishara kumelekeza mtumia-zana mwanadamu sehumu iliopo. 
6. Mbinu zinazowezesha tabia za wanyama zinazohusika haziko wazi, lakini zinaweza kufanana na zile za msingi za ushirikiano wa ndani na kupunguza hofu ya vitu vipya (“neophobia”). 
7. Kunauwezekano ujuzi unaohitajika inaonekana inakuzwa kupitia mafunzo ya kijamii kwa wanadamu na wanyama. Kwa sababu hii, tofauti tofauti za kitabia zimeibuka katika kila aina ya ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori katika spishi zote mbili, na ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori umepachikwa ndani ya tamaduni za kibinadamu katika maeneo ambayo hupatikana. 
8. Tunapendekeza asili nyingi zinazowezea kutufafanulia mwanzo wa tabia hizi za kipekee, lakini pia tunangazia jinsi mabadiliko ya tabia inaweza kusababisha vikwazo mpaka tabia hizi zinapotea. 
9. Hatimaye, tunaorodhesha maswali muhimu kwa ajili ya utafiti mbeleni. Tunashauri mbinu inayojumuisha mtazamo wa kiikolojia, mageuzi na kianthropolojia ili kuendeleza uelewa wetu wa ushirikiano kati ya binadamu na wanyamapori. Katika kufanya hivyo tutapata maarifa mapya kuhusu utofauti wa mwingiliano wa mababu zetu, wa sasa na wa siku zijazo za ulimwengu wa asili.